All Museums Should Be Free Of Charge All The Time Essay

All Museums Should Be Free Of Charge All The Time - Essay Example Museums are repositories of knowledge and through them, we discover and find out important aspects of our civilization. Free access to museums would help a greater number of people to learn and discover additional things about their country and help to encourage feelings of nationwide unity and identity, at the same time as promoting greater comprehension and acceptance of foreign cultures. A number of museums in the United States have made an entry for the public free of charge. These museums generally use the city and county tax collections for funding their maintenance. The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore has eliminated entry charges. Since it has an internationally renowned collection of art, the removal of admission charges would bring a greater number of people in contact with the culture of the world. The museum has a collection of a variety of world art spanning from pre-dynastic Egypt to Europe belonging to the twentieth century. It treasures a priceless collection of Greek sculptures and Roman sarcophagi; ivories of the Middle Ages and Old Master paintings; jewelry from Art Deco and nineteenth-century American and European masterpieces (Smith; The Walters Art Museum). The Toledo Art Museum in Ohio follows a free admission policy laid down in its charter of 1901, the year of its establishment. It has a huge collection of European and American paintings, glass works, Roman, Greek, Asian, African and medieval art and sculptures as well as modern and contemporary works. The Toledo Museum of Art still remains as a private, non-profit foundation and exhibits its collection to the public, free of admission charges and is open six days a week (Museum Home). The St. Louis Art Museum also guarantees free entries to the museum. This policy came up after they started using the county and city tax revenue in 1971.

Motor Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Motor Industry - Essay Example The government is trying to reduce people's reliance on cars and get them to use the public transport network, which may well be good news for buses. Unfortunately they appear to be using the stick and stick approach to getting people out of their cars. Consumer confidence in the new car market is currently in a downturn. This is due to a number of factors. Firstly, rising interest rates mean that the cost of car ownership is increasing (due to the increasing cost of loans needed to pay for owning me a new car). Also the rise in interest rates means that there is less income available for spending on a new car. There is also a lot of consumer uncertainty in the costs of fuel. Taxation is also playing a part; taxation rules now view company cars as a benefit to the employee rather than its necessity of doing the job. And as such taxation rules regarding them are tightening sharply it is no longer much of a benefit to have a company car - although they can be considered a status symbol. A higher proportion of households now have more than one vehicle and this has led to a number of interesting effects. There are a growing number of women in the workplace, and as such or ownership amongst women is going up. In addition as households have more than one vehicle, those vehicles are becoming differentiated. ... A household may well a people carrier or large vehicle for family use and a smaller or sportier car for personal use. T - Technological - How new and emerging technology affects our business There are two main technological challenges to the modern motor industry. Firstly there is a change to the way people buy cars. Due to the internet people are able to research their choices more thoroughly. For example, J.D Power and Associates studied nearly 30,000 car buyers in 2002 to discover that more than half the buyers look at the internet before making a buying decision about a car. Additionally nearly 90% of car buyers visit the car manufacturer's website to get a better idea about the look and feel of the car. Therefore, the use of technology in this area is an essential requirement for car manufactures of today (Baki et. al., 2004). And secondly a quotation from the introduction to the Automotive Electronics show: "What sort of car will you be driving in ten years time The most significant difference will be the use of electronics to make cars safer, smarter, less polluting and more enjoyable to drive. Tomorrow's road vehicles will have significant in-car processing power to lighten the driver workload and will be able to communicate with the road infrastructure receiving advance warning of congestion or other hazards. The possibilities appear endless and limited only by our imagination. The two major drivers will be to reduce road accidents and pollution as car ownership rises in the decades to come." L - Legal - How local, national and world legislation affects us The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders did a survey in 2006. Nearly 90% of respondents said that legislation had

Learning theories Essay Example for Free

Learning theories Essay Primary research consists of the collection of original primary data. It is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by reviewing secondary research or by analyzing previously collected primary data. It can be accomplished through various methods, including questionnaires and telephone interviews in market research, or experiments and direct observations in the physical sciences, amongst others. Secondary Research: Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments. The term is widely used in medical research and in market research. The principal methodology in medical secondary research is the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical techniques, although other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews and meta-narrative[2] reviews, have been developed in recent years. Such secondary research uses the primary research of others typically in the form of research publications and reports. In a market research context, secondary research is taken to include the re-use by a second party of any data collected by a first party or parties. In archaeology and landscape history, desk research is contrasted with fieldwork. Primary Research Vs Secondary Research One of the major differences between the two is that primary research is conducted with the help of primary sources available where as secondary research is conducted on the basis of some data collected from someone who had got it from the sources. Primary research is expensive to conduct since it involves primary sources. But secondary research is not much expensive as primary. Another major difference between the two is that primary research is much more time consuming as compared to secondary research. As a matter of fact the results found by the primary research are usually to have better quality than those from the conduct of the secondary research. Primary research is also usually detailed and elaborated since it is supposed to be both qualitative as well as quantitative. On the other hand data pertaining to secondary research is usually not much detailed and elaborated since it involves indirect uses. Primary research is done with a lot of hard work and dedication. On the hand secondary research is usually presented with a number of data and records. These are usually taken from books, periodicals published by governmental organizations, statistical data, annual reports and case study ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR. Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structures have on behavior within an organization for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organizations effectiveness. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes sociology, psychology, communication, and management; and it complements the academic studies of organizational theory (which is focused on organizational and intra-organizational topics) and human resource studies (which is more applied and business-oriented). It may also be referred to as organizational studies or organizational science. The field has its roots in industrial and organizational psychology. 1 Organizational studies encompass the study of organizations from multiple viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook divides these multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present especially in  American academia, is between the study of micro organizational behaviour — which refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting — and macro strategic management and organizational theory which studies whole organizations and industries, how they adapt, and the strategies, structures and contingencies that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an interest in meso scale structures power, culture, and the networks of individuals and i. e. ronit units in organizations — and field level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact. Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers behavior, as well as the manner in which workers are treated (see Taylors scientific management approach compared to the human relations movement of the 1940s). As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful. Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational development, enhancing organizational performance, as well as individual and group performance/satisfaction/commitment. One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, according to Simms (1994), to revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life. † An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory, and is concerned to help managers and administrators. 1. INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING. The process of learning has great value for enriching human life in all spheres of life. All activities and behaviors that make personal, social and economic life peaceful and pleasurable are learned. Learning definitely affects human behaviour in organizations. There is little organizational behaviour that is not either directly or indirectly affected by learning. For example, a workers skill, a managers attitude, a supervisors motivation and a secretarys mode of dress are all learned. Our ability to learn is also important to organizations preoccupied with controlled  performance. Employees have to know what they are to do, how they are to do it, how well they are expected to do it, and the consequences of achieving good or poor levels of performance. Thus, learning theories have influenced a range of organizational practices concerning: 1. The induction of new recruits 2. The design and delivery of job training 3. The design of payment systems- 4. How supervisors evaluate and provide feedback on employee performance 5. The design of forms of learning organization The concept of the learning organization became popular during the 1990s. The learning organization is a configuration of structures and policies which encourage individual learning, with individual and organizational benefits. The organization itself can also be regarded as an entity which is capable of learning independently of its members. Knowledge has thus become a more important asset for many organizations than materials and products. 1. 1 WHAT IS LEARNING Learning covers virtually all behaviors and is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and values, emotional responses (such as happiness and fear), and motor skills (such as operating a computer keyboard or riding a bicycle). We can learn incorrect facts or pick up bad habits in the same way that we learn correct facts and acquire good habits. It refers to a spectrum of changes that occur as a result of ones experience. Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioral potential produced by experience. It may be noted here that some behavioral changes take place due to the use of drugs, alcohol, or fatigue. Such changes are temporary. They are not considered learning. Therefore, changes are due to practice and experience, and relatively permanent, alone are illustrative of learning. In the definition given above, it is clear that the process of learning has certain distinctive characteristics. These are: First, learning always involves some kind of experience. These experiences may be derived from inside the body or they may be sensory, arising outside. The task of inferring whether or not learning has taken place may be an obvious one, but observable behaviour may not always reveal learning. It is important to distinguish between two types of learning. Procedural learning or knowing how, concerns your ability to carry out particular skilled actions such as riding a horse. Declarative learning or `knowing that, concerns your store of factual knowledge such as an understanding of the history of our use of the horse. Second, the behavioral changes that take place due to learning are relatively permanent. Behaviour can be changed temporarily by many other factors and in ways which we would not like to call learning. These other factors include growing up or maturation (in children), aging (in adults), drugs, alcohol and fatigue. For example, you must have noticed that whenever one takes a sedative or drug or alcohol, ones behaviour changes. Each one of these drugs affect physiological functions leading to certain changes in behaviour. Such changes are temporary in nature and disappear as the effect of drugs wears out. Third, learning cannot be observed directly. We can only observe a persons behaviour and draw the inference from it that learning has taken place. A distinction has to be made between learning and performance. Performance is evaluated by some quantitative and some qualitative measures of output. For example, the number of calls a sales representative makes to customers or the quality of a managers chairing of a committee meeting. But, learning acts as a constraint on the outcome. Normally, we cannot perform any better than we have learned, though there are occasions when the right motivational disposition and a supportive environment help to raise the level of performance. Researchers have found that increased motivation may improve our performance up to a point but, beyond this, increased motivation may cause a lowering of the level of performance. 2. PRECONDITIONS FOR LEARNING Two preconditions for learning will increase the success of those who are to participate in such programs: employee readiness and motivation. The condition known as employee readiness refers to both maturational and experiential factors in the employee’s background. Prospective employees should be screened to determine that they have the background knowledge or the skills necessary for learning what will be presented to them. Recognition of individual differences in readiness is as important in an organization as it is in any other learning situation. It is often desirable to group individuals according to their capacity to learn, as determined by scores from tests, or to provide a different or extended type of instruction for those who need it. The other precondition for learning is that the employee be properly motivated. That is, for optimum learning the employee must recognize the need for acquiring new information or for having new skills; and a desire to learn as learning progresses must be maintained. While people at work are motivated by certain common needs, they differ from one another in the relative importance of these needs at any given time. For example, new recruits often have an intense desire for advancement, and have established specific goals for career progression. Objectives that are clearly defined will produce increased motivation in the learning process when instructional objectives are related to individual needs. 3. SOME PREREQUISITES FOR LEARNING After employees have been placed in the learning situation, their readiness and motivation should be assessed further. In addition, facilitators should understand the basic learning issues discussed below. 3. 1 MEANINGFUL MATERIALS In accordance with adult learning theories, the material to be learned should be organized in as meaningful a manner as possible. It should be arranged so that each successive experience builds upon preceding ones so that the employee is able to integrate the experiences into a useable pattern of knowledge and skills. The material should have face validity. 3. 2 REINFORCEMENT Anything which strengthens the employee’s response is called reinforcement. It may be in the form of approval from the instructor or facilitator or the feeling of accomplishment that follows the performance; or it may simply be confirmation by a software program that the employee’s response was correct. It is generally most effective if it occurs immediately after a task has been performed. Behaviour modification, or a technique that operates on the principle that behaviour that is rewarded positively (reinforced) will be exhibited more frequently in the future, whereas behaviour that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency, is often used for such purposes 3. 3 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE Unless what is learned in the development activity is applicable to what is required on the job, the effort will have been of little value. The ultimate effectiveness of learning, therefore, is to be found in the answer to the question: ‘To what extent does what is learned transfer to the job? ’ Helpful approaches include ensuring that conditions in the development program conform as closely as possible to those on the job, and coaching employees on the principles for applying to the job the behaviors which they have learned. Furthermore, once formal instruction has been completed, the supervisor must ensure that the work environment supports, reinforces and rewards the employee for applying the new skills or knowledge. 3. 4 KNOWLEDGE OF PROGRESS As an employee’s development progresses, motivation may be maintained and even increased by providing knowledge of progress. Progress, as determined by tests and other records, may be plotted on a chart, commonly referred to as a learning curve. Exhibit 8. 9 is an example of a learning curve that is common in the acquisition of many job skills. 4. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING A. Distributed Learning: Another factor that determines the effectiveness of learning is the amount of time given to practice in one session. Should training or development be undertaken in five two-hour periods or in 10 one-hour periods? It has been found in most cases that spacing out the activities will result in more rapid learning and more permanent retention. This is the principle of distributed learning. Since the most efficient distribution will vary according to the type and complexity of the task to be learned, it is desirable to make reference to the rapidly growing body of research in this area when an answer is required for a specific learning situation. B. Whole v. Part Learning: Most jobs and tasks can be broken down into parts that lend themselves to further analysis. The analysis of the most effective manner for completing each part then provides a basis for giving specific instruction. Airline flight attendant jobs, for example, involve a combination of mechanistic (specific tasks that follow a prescribed routine), and organic (tasks that involve decision-making and individualized responses) duties, which are best learnt separately, and then combined to form the whole job responsibility. Thus, the prescribed takeoff and landing announcements, and formal safety procedures, are supplemented with separate learning activities about how to deal with difficult passengers or how to cope with food supply problems. In evaluating whole versus part learning, it is necessary to consider the nature of the task to be learned. If the task can be broken down successfully for part learning, it should probably be taught as a unit. C. Practice and Repetition: It is those things we do daily that become a part of our repertoire of skills. Employees need frequent opportunities to practice their job tasks in the manner in which they will ultimately be expected to perform them. The individual who is being taught to operate a machine should have an opportunity to practice on it. Similarly, the supervisor who is being taught how to train should have supervised practice in training D. Multiple Sense Learning: It has long been acknowledged that the use of multiple senses increases learning. Smith and Delahaye state that about 80 per cent of what a person perceives is obtained visually, 11 per cent by hearing and 9 per cent by the other senses combined. It follows that in order to maximize learning, multiple senses of the employees, particularly sight and hearing, should be engaged. Visual aids are therefore emphasized as being important to the learning and development activities. 5. THEORIES OF LEARNING OR APPROCHES TO LEARNING 1. BEHAVIORLIST APPROACH Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay â€Å"Memory† focused on association being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed Aristotle’s thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995). Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner later developed the theory in more detail. Watson is the theorist credited with coining the term behaviorism. The school of adult learning theory that adopted these principles has become known as the school of behaviorism, which saw learning as a straightforward process of response to stimuli. The provision of a reward or reinforcement is believed to strengthen the response and therefore result in changes in behavior – the test, according to this school of thought, is as to whether learning had occurred. Spillane (2002) states, â€Å"the behaviorist perspective, associated with B. F. Skinner, holds that the mind at work cannot be observed, tested, or understood; thus, behaviorists are concerned with actions (behavior) as the sites of knowing, teaching, and learning†. The hypothesis behind behaviorlist learning theories is that all learning occurs when behavior is influenced and changed by external factors. Behavioralism disregards any notion that there may be an internal component to man’s learning. Grippin and Peters (1984) emphasize in regard to an individual’s subjugation to external stimulus as a determinant of response (i. e. , behavior). Contiguity is understood as the timing of events that is necessary to bring about behavioral change, while reinforcement refers to the probability that repeated positive or negative events will produce an anticipated change in behavior. 1. (A) Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Originators and Key Contributors: First described by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist, in 1903, and studied in infants by John B. Watson (1878-1958). Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i. e. , making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning. Pavlov’s Dogs In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled â€Å"psychic reflexes. † While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder. Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i. e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding. In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food. John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans. 1. (B) GOMS Model (Card, Moran, Newell) The GOMS Model is a human information processing model that predicts what skilled users will do in seemingly unpredictable situations. Originators and proponents: Card, Moran and Newell in 1983; Bonnie John et al. This model is the general term for a family of human information processing techniques that attempt to model and predict user behavior. Typically used by software designers, a person’s behavior is analyzed in terms of four components: Goals – something that the person wants to accomplish. Can be high level to low level. Operators – basic perceptual, cognitive, or motor actions used to accomplish goals, or actions that the software allows user to make. Methods – procedures (sequences) of sub-goals and operators that can accomplish a goal Selection rules – personal rules users follow in deciding what method to use in a circumstance 1. (C) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end. Originators and Key Contributors: B. F. Skinner, built upon Ivan Pavlov’s theories of classical conditioning. Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some other prize. Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points. Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time the animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever. The term â€Å"operant conditioning† originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations) Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative. Positive and negative reinforces Positive reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc. Negative reinforces typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative is removed. The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase. Positive and negative punishment Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows. Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in order to weaken the response that follows. Negative punishment is characterized by when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a undesired behavior occurs. The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease. What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e. g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response. 1. (D) Socialist Learning Theory (Bandura). Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Originator: Albert Bandura People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. â€Å"Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. † (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Necessary conditions for effective modeling: 1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e. g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention. 2. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal 3. Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. 4. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such asA past (i. e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model) Bandura believed in â€Å"reciprocal determinism†, that is, the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior, Bandura,who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language). 2. CONSTURCTIVIST Constructivism is a synthesis of multiple theories diffused into one form. It is the assimilation of both behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The â€Å"constructivist stance maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience†. This is a combination effect of using a person’s cognitive abilities and insight to understand their environment. This coincides especially well with current adult learning theory. This concept is easily translated into a self-directed learning style, where the individual has the ability to take in all the information and the environment of a problem and learn. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Originators and important contributors: Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, Bruner Constructivism A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes: Major themes: 1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: â€Å"Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). † 2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers. 3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone. Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills. 3. COGNITIVISM The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the â€Å"black box† of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer). Originators and important contributors: Merrill -Component Display Theory (CDT), Reigeluth (Elaboration Theory), Gagne, Briggs, Wager, Bruner (moving toward cognitive constructivism), Schank (scripts), Scandura (structural learning) The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the â€Å"black box† of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. A response to behaviorism, people are not â€Å"programmed animals† that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes. 3. 1 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt – essence or shape of an entitys complete form) is a theory of mind and brain of the Berlin School; the operational principle of gestalt psychology is that the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies.

Theories of Belbin

Theories of Belbin Theories of belbin Co-ordinator The co-ordinator is a person-oriented leader. This person is trusting, accepting, dominant and is committed to team goals and objectives. The co-ordinator is a positive thinker who approves of goal attainment, struggle and effort in others. The co-ordinator is someone tolerant enough always to listen to others, but strong enough to reject their advice. The co-ordinator may not stand out in a team and usually does not have a sharp intellect. Shaper The shaper is a task-focused leader who abounds in nervous energy, who has a high motivation to achieve and for whom winning is the name of the game. The shaper is committed to achieving ends and will shape others into achieving the aims of the team. He or she will challenge, argue or disagree and will display aggression in the pursuit of goal achievement. Two or three shapers in a group, according to Belbin, can lead to conflict, aggravation and in-fighting. Plant The plant is a specialist idea maker characterised by high IQ and introversion while also being dominant and original. The plant tends to take radical approaches to team functioning and problems. Plants are more concerned with major issues than with details. Weaknesses are a tendency to disregard practical details and argumentativeness. Resource Investigator The resource investigator is the executive who is never in his room, and if he is, he is on the telephone. The resource investigator is someone who explores opportunities and develops contacts. Resource investigators are good negotiators who probe others for information and support and pick up others ideas and develop them. They are characterised by sociability and enthusiasm and are good at liaison work and exploring resources outside the group. Weaknesses are a tendency to lose interest after initial fascination with an idea, and they are not usually the source of original ideas. Company worker/ implementer Implementers are aware of external obligations and are disciplined, conscientious and have a good self-image. They tend to be tough-minded and practical, trusting and tolerant, respecting established traditions. They are characterised by low anxiety and tend to work for the team in a practical, realistic way. Implementers figure prominently in positions of responsibility in larger organisations. They tend to do the jobs that others do not want to do and do them well: for example, disciplining employees. Implementers are conservative, inflexible and slow to respond to new possibilities. Monitor evaluator According to the model, this is a judicious, prudent, intelligent person with a low need to achieve. Monitor evaluators contribute particularly at times of crucial decision making because they are capable of evaluating competing proposals. The monitor evaluator is not deflected by emotional arguments, is serious minded, tends to be slow in coming to a decision because of a need to think things over and takes pride in never being wrong. Weaknesses are that they may appear dry and boring or even over-critical. They are not good at inspiring others. Those in high level appointments are often monitor evaluators. Team worker Team workers make helpful interventions to avert potential friction and enable difficult characters within the team to use their skills to positive ends. They tend to keep team spirit up and allow other members to contribute effectively. Their diplomatic skills together with their sense of humour are assets to a team. They tend to have skills in listening, coping with awkward people and to be sociable. sensitive and people oriented. They tend to be indecisive in moments of crisis and reluctant to do things that might hurt others. Completer finishers The completer finisher dots the is and crosses the ts. He or she gives attention to detail, aims to complete and to do so thoroughly. They make steady effort and are consistent in their work. They are not so interested in the glamour of spectacular success. Weaknesses, according to Belbin, are that they tend to be over anxious and have difficulty letting go and delegating work. Specialist The specialist provides knowledge and technical skills which are in rare supply within the team. They are often highly introverted and anxious and tend to be self-starting, dedicated and committed. Their weaknesses are single-mindedness and a lack of interest in other peoples subjects Belbin Team Roles Dr Meredith Belbin, UK academic and consultant developed the Belbin ® team roles model in the late 1970s. Belbins work at Henley Management College demonstrated that balanced teams comprising people with different capabilities performed better than teams that are less well balanced. Belbins key book Management Teams Why They Succeed or Fail, was first published in 1981. According to Belbin publicity (Belbin founded Belbin Associates, who produce and provide psychometrics (personality and behavioural testing) instruments and other related services based on Belbins theories) the Belbin Team Roles model is used by over 40% of the UKs top 100 companies, and thousands more internationally. N.B. The Belbin Team Role model and certain related teminology is  © Belbin Associates if in doubt about usage check with Belbin. The use of Belbin tests and training materials is subject to licence from Belbin. Meredith Belbin initially identified a set of eight roles, which, it is argued, are all present in a team provide good balance and increase likelihood of success. The eight roles were later increased to nine, with the addition of the Specialist role. Presumably due to political correctness and changing attitudes in organisations, the names of certain roles have been altered in recent years. Below are the modern role names and brief descriptions, with notes of what they were previously called where appropriate. There are no good or bad roles. People are as they are, and all roles play important parts in successful teams. Belbin suggested that certain roles tend to be more extraverted (outgoing, proactive, outward-looking) while other roles tend to be more introverted (inward-looking, reactive). These days less emphasis is placed on whether a role was considered extravert or introvert, but for the record, the roles originally presented as extravert are indicated with an asterisk* within the roles listing and descriptions below: belbin team roles and descriptions It is not easy to correlate precisely the Belbin team roles to specific personality types in other personality models, although there are certain common elements, for example Extraverted and Introverted roles, which are colour coded appropriately below. There are also some useful correlations with the Big Five Factors model. This colour-coding does not form part of the original Belbin theory, it simply aims to assist comparisons with other models explained in this section. role name strengths and styles Coordinator (CO)* able to get others working to a shared aim; confident, mature (originally called Chairman by Belbin) Shaper (SH)* motivated, energetic, achievement-driven, assertive, competitive Plant (PL)* innovative, inventive, creative, original, imaginative, unorthodox, problem-solving Monitor-Evaluator (ME) serious, prudent, critical thinker, analytical Implementer (IMP) systematic, common sense, loyal, structured, reliable, dependable, practicable, efficient (originally called Company Workers) Resource Investigator (RI)* quick, good communicator, networker, outgoing, affable, seeks and finds options, negotiator Team Worker (TW) supportive, sociable, flexible, adaptable, perceptive, listener, calming influence, mediator Completer-Finisher (CF) attention to detail, accurate, high standards, quality orientated, delivers to schedule and specification Specialist (SP) technical expert, highly focused capability and knowledge, driven by professional standards and dedication to personal subject area Belbin suggested these roles are more extravert than introvert. N.B. It does not follow that extraverted roles are always self-motivating. Neither does it follow that introverted roles need motivating or instructing. The proactivity, direction, attitude and motivation of any roles, in a Belbin context (as for any other personality profiling system), depend on a wide variety of factors, including alignment of organisational and personal aims and values, personal circumstances, emotional maturity, life-stage, leadership influences, reward systems, and more. Greater understanding of these issues can be achieved by considering many different behavioural perspectives, theories and models. The simplest central point relating to motivation is that different people respond to different stimuli. Therefore the more we understand about ourselves and people, then the more we understand about what motivates us. People are more motivated and happy when they are performing and working in a way that is natural to them. Expecting a person with a particular personality type (be it represented by a Belbin team role, a Jung psychological type, a Myers Briggs ® MBTI ®, or whatever) to perform well and enthusiastically in a role that is foreign or alien to their natural preferences and strengths is not helpful for anyone. The UK DTI quality management guidance notes provides further some useful interpretation of the parts that these roles play in teams: Belbin team roles within teams The Coordinator clarifies group objectives, sets the agenda, establishes priorities, selects problems, sums up and is decisive, but does not dominate discussions. The Shaper gives shape to the team effort, looking for pattern in discussions and practical considerations regarding the feasibility of the project. Can steamroller the team, but gets results. The Plant is the source of original ideas, suggestions and proposals that are usually original and radical. The Monitor-Evaluator contributes a measured and dispassionate analysis and, through objectivity, stops the team committing itself to a misguided task. The Implementer turns decisions and strategies into defined and manageable tasks, sorting out objectives and pursuing them logically. The Resource Investigator goes outside the team to bring in ideas, information and developments to it. They are the teams sales-person, diplomat, liaison officer and explorer. The Team Worker operates against division and disruption in the team, like cement, particularly in times of stress and pressure. The Finisher maintains a permanent sense of urgency with relentless follow-through. All of these roles have value and are missed when not in a team; there are no stars or extras. An individuals team role can be determined by the completion of a Belbin questionnaire. It is not essential that teams comprise eight people each fulfilling one of the roles above, but that people who are aware and capable of carrying out these roles should be present. In small teams, people can, and do, assume more than one role. In addition, analysing existing teams and their performance or behaviour, using these team role concepts, can lead to improvements, for example: Under-achievement demands a good coordinator or finisher Conflict requires a team worker or strong coordinato Mediocre performance needs a resource investigator, innovator or shaper Error prone teams need an evaluator Different roles are important in different circumstances, for example: New teams need a strong shaper to get started. Competitive situations demand an innovator with good ideas. In areas of high risk, a good evaluator may be needed. Teams should, therefore, be analysed both in terms of what team roles members can play, and also in relation to what team skills are most needed. Despite having well defined roles within a team, the interaction between the different personalities of individuals can be a frequent source of friction. However, this can largely be avoided by understanding and valuing peoples differences. (The above notes about Belbin team roles within teams are UK DTI quality management guidance notes and are Crown Copyright.) Source: http://www.businessballs.com/personalitystylesmodels.htm#belbin%20team%20roles%20descriptions http://www.teambuilding.co.uk/belbin-team-role.html   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  isko check ker lio ek baar Belbin profiles, team games and exercises are frequently used for recruitment purposes, whether to assess candidates from outside the organisation, compare candidates for promotion or to scrutinise a shortlist for a graduate scheme. If you are looking to use Belbin in recruitment, there are many options available to you. Further ismein hai http://www.belbin.com/rte.asp?id=50 Q Can you please explain the advantages and disadvantages of Belbin profiling? A I think the main advantage is in how it provides a non-confrontational and non-hierarchical language to describe a persons natural behavioural tendencies. The fact that it is behavioural based (rather than a psychometric assessment) and easily understood and used by people at all levels in an organisation is of course a big advantage, plus of course the facility for observer feedback. The main disadvantage is that as behaviour is more open to change the assessments need to be done a reasonably regular intervals. This may however be regarded as an advantage and something that should be encouraged. Q Can you please tell me how the Belbin Team Role inventory can be used to improve team performance? A TheBelbinTeam Role model can be used to improve team performance in a number of ways. Here are four of them: It helps each person to be clear about their natural contribution when working in a team. By sharing this information between team members each person is aware of the role of other team members and can use this information to improve synergy. By analysing the Team Roles of the whole team the team balance can be checked and steps taken to remedy any imbalance. Hierarchy within teams is de-emphasised and individual contributions are encouraged on merit as teams apply the Team Role model.

Free Essays - I am a Poor Liar :: Personal Narrative Essays

I am a Poor Liar    Whenever I lie I get this churning in the pit of my stomach that can only be quieted with truth. My bones begin to ache as though they've been bruised. I don't know if this is innate or has been taught to me, but I feel it acutely when I call on falsehood to temporarily save me. Perhaps that is why I am so annoyed with hypocrisy. Learn to identify hypocrisy, and learn to watch your promises. Mean what you say and act on what you believe in and, above all, take responsibilities for your actions. Nobody's going to pick up your slack.    Most hypocrisies stem from pettiness. They are drawn out of things that people don't truly believe in, but fight for out of pride. If you're going to stand for something, stand for something worthy of your sweat. My mother told me never to buy a dog I couldn't pick up. Barely profound? Not so. My mother was never petty. She never attached herself to anything she couldn't take with her if she was uprooted. She could grow where she was planted. When you weigh yourself down with the trivial weariness follows you where ever you go. And Time doesn't tread softly on the laden heart.    Ideals are like stars; you will not succeed in touching them with your hands, but like the seafaring man on the desert of waters, you choose them as your guides, and following them, you reach your destiny. - Carl Schurz But as wrong as I make hypocrites out to be, don't worry too much about being one. We all have ideals and morals, but we are guided by them, not bound by them. Yes, I believe that lying undermines the human quest of truth and is a deplorable act, but I have lied. We all end up as hypocrites. 'Tis fate. The idea is to try to embody your principles. Trying separates the decent people from all that is crude and vulgar.

The Ghost Dance :: essays research papers

The Ghost Dance In January 1889, Wavoka, a Paiute Indian, had a revelation during a total eclipse of the sun. It was the genesis of a religious movement that would become known as the Ghost Dance. It was this dance that the Indians believed would reunite them with friends and relatives in the ghost world. The legend states that after prayer and ceremony, the earth would shatter and let forth a great flood that would drown all the whites and enemy Indians, leaving the earth untouched and as it was before the settlers came to America. The religion prophesied the peaceful end of the westward expansion of whites and a return of the land to the Native Americans. The first dance was held by Wovoka in 1889. The ritual lasted five successive days, being danced each night and on the last night continuing until morning. Hypnotic trances and shaking accompanied this ceremony, which was supposed to be repeated every six weeks. The ceremony also had rhythmic drumming and introduced many new musical instruments into Indian religious ceremonies. In addition, both men and women participated in the dance, unlike other Indian religions in which men were the primary dancers, singers, and musicians. Word spread quickly and the Utes, Bannocks, and Shoshone tribes accepted the Ghost Dance. Eventually, the plains tribes also accepted the Ghost Dance movement. The peaceful message of hope was uplifting to many Indians. It gave them a sense of hope that the progress of the white man would be stopped by the will of Nature.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While adopting the movement, many tribes added specific customs and rituals that reflected the tribe’s individuality. The Sioux, for instance, added two specific elements including the use of hypnosis to bring about trances as well as aid in communication with the dead, and Ghost Clothing. There are two specific types most commonly used, the ghost shirt and the ghost dress. Both were believed to protect the wearer from bullets. Sitting Bull, a famous Sioux warrior, adopted the ghost dance into his way of life. He was a respected leader, medicine man, and warrior. His following of the movement alarmed both the military and Indian Agencies. In 1890, just a few months after attending his first ghost dance, Sitting Bull was killed while resisting arrest. His followers fled and joined Kicking Bull, one of the first to Practice with Wovoka. Donning their ghost shirts and with their beliefs firm in their hearts, the followers of the ghost dance were rounded up at Wounded Knee creek and killed while resisting arrest.

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Analysis   and   Separation   of   Organic   Acids   in   White   Wine   Using   High  Performance  Liquid  Chromatography Atis,  Arnelson  Arwin  G. and  Gaitos,  Gerald  M. Institute  of  Chemistry,  University  of  the  Philippines,  Diliman,  Quezon  City   Performed:  December  9,  2011   Submitted:  December  15,  2011 RESULTS  AND  DISCUSSION   solutions   containing   increasing   amounts   of   the   organic   acid. These   solutions   were   contained   in   flasks   numbered   5,   6,   7,   8,   and   9. (Refer   to   the   Appendix   to   see   components   of   each   flask). Tables   2,   3,   4,   and   5   show  the  peak  areas  and  the  equation  of  the  calibration   curve   obtained   for   each   organic   acid   in   the   chromatograms  obtained  for  flasks  5  to  9. Table  2. Peak  Areas  of  Tartaric  Acid  in  Flasks  5,  6,  7,  8,   and  9   Flask   Retention   Peak  Area   Concentration   time  (min)   (g/L)   5   2. 863   491  364   0. 5   6   2. 905   918  187   1   7   3. 027   5  949  164   5   8   3. 044   8  363  261   8   9   3. 065   9  475  446   10   Calibration  Curve  Equation:  Ã‚   y  =  984  371. 3561x  +  216  064. 755   R2  =  0. 9912      Table  3. Peak  Areas  of  Malic  Acid  in  Flasks  5,  6,  7,  and   8   Flask   Retention   Peak  Area   Concentration   time  (min)   (g/L)   5   3. 02    159742   0. 5   6   3. 760   1  114  051   1   7   3. 756   4  892  727   5   8   3. 795   6  883  424   10   Calibration  Curve  Equation:  Ã‚   y  =  688  260. 8175x  +  475  029. 6892   R2  =  0. 9766      Table   4. Peak   Areas   of   Lactic   Acid   in   Flasks   5,   6,   7,   8,   and  9   Flask   Retention   Peak  Area   Concentration   time  (min)   (g/L)   5   3. 533   575  620   0. 1   6   3. 598   1  248  888   1   7   3. 621   3  762  922   2. 5 The   retention   times   of   different   organic   acids   commonly   found   in   white   wine   were   obtained   using   high   performance   liquid   chromatography. The   peak   areas   of   the   acids   were   then   obtained   through   chromatograms  and  plotted  against  the  concentrations   of   the standard   solutions   of   the   organic   acids   to   construct   a   calibration   curve. Finally,   the   calibration   curves   obtained   were   used   to   determine   the   concentration   of   the   organic   acids   in   samples   of   white   wine. Standard   solutions   of   various   organic   acids   commonly   found   in   white   wine   (tartaric,   malic,   lactic,   citric)   were   assigned   to   be   contained   in   flasks   1,   2,   3,   and   4,   respectively,   and   were   run   through   the   chromatograph. The  mobile  phase  used  for  the  analytes   was   H3PO4   at   pH   3,   to   prevent   dissociation   of   the   organic   acids. The   resulting   chromatograms   of   each   standard   were   then   analyzed   to   obtain   the   retention   times   of   the   organic   acids. Table   1   shows   the   experimental   retention   times   of   the   different   organic   acids. Table   1. Experimental   Retention   Times   of   Organic   Acids   Organic  Acid   Retention  Time  (min)   Tartaric  Ã‚   3. 088   Malic   3. 812   Lactic   3. 620   Citric   3. 68      Since   there   were   no   clear   peaks   from   the   chromatograms   obtained   for   the   tartaric,   malic,   and   lactic   acid   samples,   the   retention   time   at   which   the   peak   height   is   greatest   was   obtained   as   the   experimental  retention  time  of  the  organic  acids. The   experimental   retention   times   were   then   used   to   identify   the   peak   areas   corresponding   to   each   organic  acid  analyzed  in  the  resulting  chromatograms  of 8   3. 597   5  048  614   3   9   3. 619   6  519  896   5   Calibration  Curve  Equation:  Ã‚   y  =  1  300  341. 246x  +  414  396. 3089   R2  =  0. 9815      Table   5. Peak   Areas   of   Citric   Acid   in   Flasks   5,   6,   7,   8,   and  9   Flask   Retention   Peak  Area   Concentration   time  (min)   (g/L)   5   3. 140   361  921   0. 05   6   3. 208   907  232   0. 1   7   3. 306   4  736  427   0. 5   8   3. 325   7  508  481   0. 75   9   3. 347   9  612  454   1   Calibration  Curve  Equation:  Ã‚   y  =  9  836  731. 501x  +  96  328. 12036   R2  =  0. 9994      The   equations   of   the   calibration   curves   were   then   used   to   calculate   the   concentration   of   each   organic   acid   in   the   white   wine   samples. The   peak   area   corresponding   to   each   organic   acid   was   first   obtained,   and   substituted   in   the   calibration   curve   equation. The   concentration  of  each  acid  is  shown  in  Table  6. Table   6. Experimental   Concentration   of   Various Organic  Acids  in  White  Wine  Samples. Organic   Retention   Peak  Area   Concentration   Acid   Time  (min)   (g/L)   Tartaric  Ã‚   2. 966   2  675  651   2. 499   Malic   3. 752   3  576  021   4. 506   Lactic   3. 393   4  709  737   3. 303   Citric   3. 144   794  394   0. 091      The  results  indicate  that  malic  acid  is  the  major   component  of  white  wine. But  in  reality,  this  is  not  the   case. The  major  component  of  white  wine  is  found  to  be   tartaric  acid. The   chromatograms   (See   Appendix)   of   flasks   1   to   9,   and   of   the   sample   are   not   well   resolved. This   discrepancy   may   be   caused   by   several   factors. These   factors   include   poor   solution   preparation,   contamination  of  the  solvent  or  the  sample,  bubbles  in   the   detector,   impurities   in   the   mobile   phase,   bleeding   of  the  column,  inadequate  adjustment  of  equilibrium  in   gradient   operation,   and   carry? over   from   previous   injection. Due  to  these  factors,  it  is  highly  advised  that  the   future   researchers   should   cautiously   execute   each procedure   of   the   experiment   to   eliminate   the   discrepancy   and   accordingly,   they   could   attain   better   results. They   could   also   make   use   of   theoretical   retention  times  of  the  organic  acids  to  determine  each   of   them   and   which   could   further   help   the   future   researchers   to   analyze   the   wine   sample   more   efficiently. REFERENCE:      Meyer,  Veronika  R. Practical  High  Performance  Liquid  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚   Chromatography. 2nd  ed. 1993. England:  John  Ã‚   Wiley  &  Sons  Ltd. APPENDIX  Ã‚   Data  Sheets  Ã‚      Concentration  of  tartaric  acid  standard:  50. 0  g/L   Concentration  of  malic  acid  standard:  50. 0  g/L   Concentration  of  lactic  acid  standard:  25. 0  g/L   Concentration  of  citric  acid  standard:  5. 0  g/L   Composition  of  Flasks  1? 9   Volume  of  standard  stock  solutions  (in  mL)      Retention  Time  Measurement   Calibrat ion  Curve   Flask  #   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   Tartaric  Acid   5. 00   0. 00   0. 00   0. 00   0. 25 0. 50 2. 50 4. 00 Malic  Acid   0. 00   7. 50   0. 00   0. 00   0. 10 0. 50 2. 50 5. 00 Lactic  Acid   0. 00   0. 00   5. 00   0. 00   0. 10 1. 00 2. 50 3. 00 Citric  Acid   0. 00   0. 00   0. 00   5. 00   0. 25 0. 50 2. 50 3. 75 9   5. 00 7. 50 5. 00 5. 00 *Chromatograms  of  flasks  1? 9  and  of  the  white  wine  sample  can  be  seen  in  the  remaining  pages  after  this.